An all-embracing science: The anthropological conception of Paolo Mantegazza.

This paper deals with the anthropological conception of the first modern Italian anthropologist, Paolo Mantegazza (1831-1910). We will begin by contextualizing the status of anthropology in Italy during the second half of the 19th century. Subsequently, we will delve into some of the inspirations that led the Italians to have such a multifaceted conception of the discipline. Next, we will outline the content of this approach and clarify the meaning of "omnicomprehensive science." From there, we will come to understand the reason for the variety of interests of the anthropologist, who aimed to study the human being in all aspects of life. We will then mention the moral objective present in his professional journey: through an understanding of the complexity of human life, the anthropologist wanted to contribute to the progress and well-being of society; in other words, to "living well."

Psychobiographical reflections on Viktor von Weizsäcker within the cultural framework of salutogenesis and medical anthropology.

This article explores the life of Viktor von Weizsäcker (VvW, 1886-1957), a German medical doctor, philosopher and founder of the Heidelberg School of Anthropological Medicine, from a psychobiographical and salutogenic perspective. The authors use salutogenesis and sense of coherence (SOC), and take crucial cultural, historical, and socio-structural frameworks into account to explore the life during the 19th and 20th Centuries in Germany. They present the exploration of a strong SOC in the life of VvW and show how SOC is created within the tight family bonds of the family clan, which has produced many extraordinary theologists, philosophers, scientists and politicians over six generations. In a complex, interconnected and holistic way, SOC is evident in von VvW's individual life, and is also shown to be a family resource. This article contributes to psychobiography in three ways: it develops the salutogenetic perspective in psychobiography, explores the life of VvW within a specific sociocultural context, and investigates the life from a salutogenetic and socio-cultural perspective. Finally, conclusions are drawn, and recommendations for theory and practice are given.

el degeneracionismo al exterminio en la psiquiatría nazi. De Arthur de Gobineau y Benedict Morel a Emil Kraepelin y Ernst Rüdin / From degenerationism to extermination in nazi psychiatry. From Arthur de Gobineau and Benedict Morel to Emil Kraepelin and Ernst Rüdin

Este artículo analiza, a partir el vínculo entre psiquiatría y antropología, cómo se consolidó un discurso organicista capaz de legitimar el exterminio nazi y las políticas eugenésicas en los países democráticos. Partimos del degeneracionismo del siglo XIX y contrastamos la vertiente étnica y racial de Arthur de Gobineau con la vertiente alienista de Benedict Morel, hasta llegar a la síntesis de Cesare Lombroso. Visibilizamos el vínculo que Emil Kraepelin estableció entre la “degeneración” de los individuos y la de las razas, señalando al pueblo judío, como determinante en la consolidación científica de la Rassenhygiene en la que Adolf Hitler fundamentó su Mein Kampf. Destacamos como la justificación para “destruir la vida indigna de ser vivida”, que emergió desde el ensamblaje entre la psiquiatría y la justicia, fue determinante en la transición del III Reich entre la esterilización forzosa y el exterminio. Abordamos el Programa de Eutanasia forzosa a través del importante papel político de Ernst Rüdin, sucesor de Kraepelin y fundador de la psiquiatría genética. Concluimos que el nacionalsocialismo llevó a su máxima expresión la lógica de muerte inscrita en el degeneracionismo. Finalmente, tras una reflexión sobre las reacciones y alternativas de posguerra, destacamos la persistencia contemporánea tanto del determinismo biológico como de la desigualdad legal que marcaron el destino de las primeras víctimas del exterminio nazi.(AU)

This article analyses, from the link between psychiatry and anthropology, how an organicist discourse capable of legitimizing both, nazi extermination and eugenic policies in democratic countries, was consolidated. We depart from 19th century theory of degeneration and contrast the ethnic and racial facet of Arthur de Gobineau with the alienist facet of Benedict Morel, until reaching the synthesis of Cesare Lombroso. We highlight the link that Emil Kraepelin established between the “degeneration” of individuals and that of races, pointing out to the Jews, as determinative in the scientific consolidation of Rassenhygiene in which Adolf Hitler based its Mein Kampf. We stress the justification for “destroying life unworthy of live”, that emerged from the assemblage between psychiatry and justice, as determinant in the Third Reich transition between forced sterilization and extermination. We approach the forced Euthanasia Program through the important political role of Ernst Rüdin, Kraepelin’s successor and founder of genetic psychiatry. We conclude that National Socialism took to its maximum expression the logic of death inscribed in the theory of degeneration. Finally, after a reflection on post-war reactions and alternatives, we highlight the contemporary persistence of both biological determinism and legal inequality that marked the fate of the first victims of nazi extermination.(AU)

[Race as Global Data Stream: Anthropological Research in 20th Century Hamburg as a Vantage Point for a Data History of Racialization]. / "Rasse" als globaler Datenstrom: Die Hamburger Anthropologie des 20. Jahrhunderts als Ausgangspunkt einer Datengeschichte der Rassifizierung.

This article explores anthropological research conducted in Hamburg during the 20th century and demonstrates how historically specific discourse networks (Aufschreibesysteme) shaped concepts of race and their subsequent use in politics. To this end, this study examines three paradigms within the history of German anthropology in terms of their underlying inscription technique: physical anthropology/loose-leaf collection, "Erblehre"/card index, and population genetics/electronic data processing. By outlining a data history of racialization, this article avoids the ontological pitfalls of recent debates about the category of race.

Kant, intoxicated: the aesthetics of drunkenness, between moral duty and "active play".

This article examines Kant's overlooked concept of "active play," as opposed to "free play," in connection with the influence of the Brunonian system of medicine, both of which, I propose, are central to understanding the broader significance of intoxication in Kant's post-1795 work. Beginning with a discussion of the late-18th century German reception of Brunonian theory, the idea of vital stimulus, and their importance for Kant, I assess the distinction drawn between gluttony and intoxication in The Metaphysics of Morals and Anthropology from a Practical Point of View. Both are analysed in the context of the Brunonian system of medicine, having establishing Kant's commitment to the Brunonianism system, as corroborated by Wasianski. What emerges is a novel understanding of intoxication in the work of Immanuel Kant, which brings to light a previously unexamined dynamic between imagination, intoxication, and the aesthetic.

Kant's pragmatic use of reason from a sociological point of view: Third way or methodological impasse?

The paper focuses on the relevance of Kant's anthropologically oriented idea of the pragmatic use of reason for specific theoretical approaches in sociology. As I show in the first part, Kant's explicit presence in 20th-century sociology does not refer much to his anthropology and specifically to its cornerstone - the pragmatic use of reason which establishes a subtle connection between the theoretical and practical functions of reason. As an instrument for gaining systematic knowledge about the social world and ourselves as beings both passively and actively involved in this process, Kant's pragmatic use of reason serves a specific form of the theoretical use of reason. At the same time, it embodies a kind of practical reasoning concerning the "general welfare" in the social sphere. Building on the key arguments in the first part, I then address the question of whether we can view Kant's pragmatic approach as a possible third way for sociology today, beyond the simplifying opposition of 'theoretical' normativity and 'realistic' empiricism, and whether this third way can help us in clearing specific sociological issues. Here, I focus on two examples, namely the use of Kant's notion of "unsocial sociability" in Ralf Dahrendorf's conflict theory and on the criticism of Kant's cosmopolitanism in Ulrich Beck's reformed sociology of cosmopolitanism.

Five brains of alienated criminals. Neurological investigations of early twentieth century criminal anthropology.

BACKGROUND: For the followers of criminal anthropology, during the second half of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, the association "anatomical anomaly - psyche anomaly" represented an immediate diagnostic tool to identify mental illness and consequently the tendency to become a criminal. In this article, we analyse a clinical report published in 1900 in which the author, Dr. Saporito, described five brains of alienated criminals from the Aversa asylum. METHODS: Through the observations of Dr. Saporito's autoptic evaluations and the literature of the times, the beliefs of the positivist science of that time are highlighted. RESULTS: The identification of multiple physical anomalies focused on the brains, with particular attention to the alteration at the level of some fissures, could lead to identify psychiatric disorders and criminal tendency. CONCLUSIONS: From the observations presented here, the author reiterated that several anomalies recorded in these five brains reproduced atavistic characteristics, which disappeared in the ontogenetic and phylogenetic evolution of the human brain.

The Latin stranger-science, or l'anthropologie among the Lusitanians.

This essay traces the connected histories of Portuguese and French anthropology in the late nineteenth century. By looking at a Portuguese scientific institution, the Carlos Ribeiro Society, it considers how French race science, known as anthropologie, was adopted and adapted across the European Latin world as a type of "stranger-science." That is: as an authoritative outsider scientific formation, installed into national terrain in accordance with insider strategies for turning foreign elements into native forms of scientific sovereignty and modernity. French anthropology's international diffusion becomes meaningful in the light of the Portuguese incorporating what was foreign and modern as a means to generate vitality, and authority endogenously in their own national context. Hence, addressing the circulation of stranger-sciences can pave the way for an original conceptualizing of the transnational life of race science across and even beyond the Latin world.

Acerca de los Comienzos de la Antropología en España (1939-1972), según Joan Prat Carós / Sobre os Começos da Antropologia na Espanha, da acordo com o Joan Prat Carós Cristo Manuel Marrero González / About the Beginnings of Antropology in Spain (1939-1972), according to Joan Prat Carós

En este documento se realiza una revisión y reflexión sobre los inicios de laAntropología en España a mediados del siglo XX. En dicho análisis reflexivo se realizaen una recensión de una obra del antropólogo Joan Prat Carós, catedrático emérito deAntropología en la Universidad Rovira i Virgili de Tarragona (España). En este ensayo,se aborda especialmente el contexto histórico español de la época y los primeros autoresque hicieron trabajo antropológico en España, así como el germen de la consolidación dela disciplina académicamente en dicho país.(AU)

This paper is a review and reflection on the beginnings of Anthropology in Spainin the mid-twentieth century. In this reflexive analysis it is carried out in a review of awork by anthropologist Joan Prat Carós, Emeritus Professor of Anthropology at theRovira i Virgili University of Tarragona (Spain). In this essay, the Spanish historicalcontext of the time and the first authors who did anthropological work in Spain, as wellas the germ of the consolidation of the discipline academically in that country, arespecially addressed.(AU)

Neste breve ensaio, eu faço uma revisão e reflexão sobre os começos daAntropologia na Espanha nos meados do século XX. É uma recensão de um trabalho doJoan Prat Carós, professor universitário emérito da Universidade Rovira i Virgili emTarragona (A Espanha). O contexto histórico espanhol desse momento, os autores quefaçerom as primeiras pesquisas na Espanha, assim como o germe da consolidação daAntropologia, são especialmente tratados neste documento.(AU)

Resurecting raciology? Genetic ethnology and pre-1945 anthropological race classification.

This article places the current high-profile and controversial scientific project that I call 'genetic ethnology' within the same two-century tradition of biologically classifying modern peoples as pre-1945 race anthropology. Similarities in how these two biological projects have combined political and scientific agendas raise questions about the liberalism of genetics and stimulate concerns that genetic constructions of human difference might revive a politics of hate, division and hierarchy. The present article however goes beyond existing work that links modern genetics with race anthropology. It systematically compares their many similar practices and organisational features, showing that both projects were political-scientific syntheses. Studying how the origins, geography, filiations, 'travels and encounters of our ancestors' affect 'current genetic variation', both seem to have responded to a continuous public demand for biologists to explain the histories of politically significant peoples and give them a scientific basis. I challenge habitual contrasts between apolitical scientific genetics and racist pseudoscience and use race anthropology as a parable for how, in the era of Brexit and Trump, right-wing identity politics might infect genetic ethnology. I argue however that although biology-based identities carry risks of essentialism and determinism, the practices and organisation of classification pose greater political dangers.

John Irvine Hunter (1898-1924): Australian Anatomist and Medical Educator.

This paper focuses on the short, but brilliant career of the Australian anatomist and medical educator, John Irvine Hunter. Hunter's biography is presented within the context of the early twentieth century anatomy and medical education. John Irvine Hunter was not only the youngest ever Professor of Anatomy at the University of Sydney, but he was also undeniably brilliant with regard to teaching and researching anatomy, physiology and anthropology. While his short career answered many questions in these fields, it raised more questions regarding what Hunter may have accomplished if only he had been given the chance. These unanswered questions have spawned what we now affectionately refer to as the "Hunter Legend". His most ambitious work on the dual innervation of striated muscle, while eventually disproven, formed an important stepping-stone in the bridging of anatomy and physiology. His thought-provoking concepts were viewed with much intrigue, and at the time were very well received. CONCLUSION: Hunter remains one of the most prominent and inspiring figures in the history of Australian anatomy and medicine.

About Disgust: a brief introduction

The use of repulsive substances, often consisting of human or animal excrement, to treat numerous diseases was quite common in primitive and ar-chaic cultures. Historical research has given this phenomenon the name of Dreck Apotheke or "excremental pharmacopoeia",and it is precisely this term that is the title of a medical text published in 1699 by a German physician, Christian Franz Paullini: Heylsame Dreck-Apotheke (Salubrious excremental pharmacopoeia). This paper aims to explain, to the extent possible, the inopportune proposal of treating human diseases using feces and urine in an age when most doctors were against said doctrine

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Por una antropología del recuerdo. Historia oral de los cuidados durante la Guerra Civil / For an anthropology of memory. Oral history of care during the Civil War

OBJETIVO: reconstruir las condiciones sociosanitarias experimentadas durante la Guerra Civil a través de la historia oral de sus últimos testigos vivos, los nonagenarios que entonces eran niños. METODOLOGÍA: se empleó un enfoque fenomenológico utilizando como diseño de investigación los testimonios focalizados recogidos a través de entrevistas semiestructuradas realizadas a seis nonagenarios que durante la Guerra Civil presentaban entre seis y diez años. Resultados principales: los informantes hacen una reconstrucción oral del recuerdo centrado en aspectos como las experiencias traumáticas (bombardeos, reclutamientos, ejecuciones), las condiciones sociales (hambre, refugiados, educación), el cuidado, y la vivencia de la infancia. Conclusión principal: los relatos muestran las dramáticas situaciones vividas durante este complicado periodo de la historia de España, experiencias que, sin embargo, no lograron robar totalmente la infancia a aquellos niños que ahora son nonagenarios

OBJECTIVE: the objective of the article has been to reconstruct the social and health conditions experienced during the Civil War through the oral history of its last living witnesses, the nonagenarians who were then children. METHODS: A phenomenological approach was used, using as research design the focused testimonies collected through semi-structured interviews carried out with six nonagenarians who were between six and ten years old during the Civil War. RESULTS: the informants make an oral reconstruction of the memory focused on aspects such as traumatic experiences (bombings, recruits, executions), social conditions (hunger, refugees, education), care, and the experience of childhood. CONCLUSIONS: the stories show the dramatic situations experienced during this complicated period in the history of Spain, experiences that, however, did not completely steal childhood from those children who are now in their early thirties

Demographic aging and biopower.

The aging of the world's population is an unprecedented recent phenomenon in human history, as for millennia - at least from the Neolithic to the mid-18th century - the age structures of human populations have changed little. The question posed by this anthropological perspective seems at first sight quite simple: how did this aging come to be? We will see that from a demographic point of view, the answer seems trivial: a basic shift in population structure is at the origin. However, we will go further by exploring the historical and political conditions of this transition by mobilizing the Foucauldian notion of biopower. We argue that this notion has the heuristic advantage of linking several core processes at work in the demographic transition. Although our analysis focuses on France to illustrate the notion of biopower in Foucault's work, we also discuss several non-western societies to explain why demographic aging is inevitable across the globe due to biopower strategies and "dispositifs". This article also constitutes a reflexive analysis on our practices as gerontologists and on the widespread "successful aging" concept.

Doctors Discussing "the Root of Koreans": Medical Genetics and the Korean Origin, 1975-1987.

Anthropological genetics emerged as a new discipline to investigate the origin of human species in the second half of the twentieth century. Using the genetic database of blood groups and other protein polymorphisms, anthropological geneticists started redrawing the ancient migratory history of human populations. A peculiarity of the Korean experience is that clinical physicians were the first experts using genetic data to theorize the historical origin of the respective population. This paper examines how South Korean physicians produced the genetic knowledge and discourse of the Korean origin in the 1970s and 1980s. It argues that transnational scientific exchange led clinical researchers to engage in global anthropological studies. The paper focuses on two scientific cooperative cases in medical genetics at the time: the West German-South Korean pharmacogenetic research on the Korean population and the Asia-Oceania Histocompatibility Workshop. At the outset, physicians introduced medical genetics into their laboratory for clinical applications. Involved in cooperative projects on investigating anthropological implications of their clinical work, medical researchers came to use their genetic data for studying the Korean origin. In the process, physicians simply followed a nationalist narrative of the Korean origin rather than criticizing it. This was partially due to their lack of serious interest in anthropological work. Their explanations about the Korean origin would be considered "scientific" while hiding their embracing of the nationalist narrative.